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This became the established system of legitimisation. Trade shouldered Ibid. In the main the authors were Iranian bureaucrats, who cannot be wholly relied upon for accuracy in the interests of their personal survival.

The fact that both the Jochid, and Chagatayid, branches of the Chingizid heirs had territorial claims on parts of Iran meant that the borders were never secure. The successive dynasts continued their peripatetic rule, and when their movements are analysed it becomes evident that they only had full control over a fraction of the territory. It was very much a question of divide and rule, and balancing the tribes against one another.

Territories were farmed out to indigenous prominent families or Turco-Mongol princely families through an appanage system in return for military support. Turco-Mongol administrators worked alongside their Persian counterparts from the start. The hunt was also highly organised, and a training tool for the military in archery and horsemanship.

On reaching the camping place they took down their tents from the wagons and set them on the ground, for they are light to carry, and so likewise they did with the mosques and shops. It is these settlements that provide information on fourteenth century material culture. Their line is said to have been destroyed by their excessive drinking and self-abuse amongst both males and females, which purportedly led to infertility and a shorter life expectancy.

See Labib , ; Mongol dominion in Anatolia was now a military reality, not just a diplomatic nicety. He instructs them to establish pious foundations, improve communications, construct irrigation systems and build bridges. These letters indicate a high degree of administrative organisation and the vast wealth that was being accrued in eastern Anatolia. This period is confusing, and what follows is a simplified version of the intrigues and counter intrigues that went on in order to give an idea of the complexities involved.

It was treated separately administratively, and the revenues were not counted in with the state ones. He defines three thematic issues at play: 1. The interaction between the various Mongol factions involved; 3. The strength of the indigenous institutions and resources. The sources are sparse, and Masson Smith based his study largely on the coin evidence. What ensued can be interpreted as reaction against fiscal repression, which became the common cause for diverse indigenous groups.

They need to be investigated thoroughly to establish whether the archaeology matches the history. These settlements are relatively remote and have not been encroached upon by modern structures.

Using Yazd as a microcosm of activity in this period, it is possible to see that contrary to all expectation, due to good local government, active investment in agricultural resources and water supply, textile industry production actually increased.

Throughout this confusing period it is possible to trace a thread of continuity and to appreciate that commercial enterprises continued with little interruption. The main income was derived from silk production, trade in raw silk and manufactured textiles, the transit trade of pearls and luxury imports from the Arabian-Persian Gulf, perfumes, herbs, medicines, foodstuffs such as dried fruits and nuts, and slaves.

The abundance of imported Chinese ceramics undoubtedly affected the demand for high quality wares, but that did not deter the pottery workshops from copying and imitating these imports. Containers were needed for medicines and foodstuffs, and the increased number of religious establishments and charitable foundations all required tablewares for their dining halls. The wealthy merchant classes would also have needed high-quality wares for their tables and kitchens. Economics and materials would have dictated whether it was possible to manufacture in one specific centre, or many, and with respect to ceramics the story will gradually unfold as the archaeological evidence is collected and collated.

The French had had the only foreign government-sponsored team excavating in Iran since , when they signed a convention with the Iranian government giving them this exclusive right. They had concentrated on the Elamite capital Susa. The published travels of Colonel Yate Fedorov-Davydov , They were following in the footsteps of one of their predecessors, William Kennett Loftus, who had made small-scale soundings at Warka, in southern Iraq, and explored Susa.

The eminent German scholar Ernst Herzfeld was amongst the first to profit from the annulment. While the majority of foreign teams continued to explore pre-Islamic cultures, the Islamic levels were not totally ignored. A brief summary of the relevant fourteenth century levels will be listed below when discussing individual sites. Despite the introduction of a new antiquities law, commercial excavation permits were still being issued to Iranian nationals and continued to be until the s.

Indeed it was active in both fakes and forgeries, all too evident in museum collections today. This led to a thirteenth century cut-off date for those sites reported to have been razed, which has caused some confusion in the preliminary pottery sequences for sites investigated. With a paucity of coin information in the earlier levels, there being an almost total lack of stratified copper coinage between and the middle of the twelfth century, in most cases excavators have had to call upon Southeast Asian and Chinese imported wares to establish a relative sequence.

Publications have concentrated on the fine wares, and little space has been given to the coarser, everyday wares. This aspect was being addressed by the late Andrew Williamson in the early s, and his tragic death in Oman robbed the Islamic archaeological world of vital information on these pottery sequences.

Regional museums and archaeological storage units have been established, whereas in the past much of this material was centralised in Tehran. Fortunately there are some structures and abandoned sites in more remote areas that remain untouched. Such dramatic occurrences can account for the incidences of complete vessels being reported in chance finds, and a wealth of finds that lay undisturbed.

Their encampments may have left little material evidence, but the outlying fortified settlements did. They would also have provided accommodation for tax collectors and storage for vital agricultural resources that were the backbone of the economy. The indigenous population was settled, as was that of the Mesopotamian plains, who were frequently threatened by marauding bedouin, so required protection. One unknown is how devastating the Black Death was on the population in the middle of the fourteenth century.

There is the odd tantalising reference, but no detailed commentaries. It is generally understood that it reached the Levant through the Golden Horde ports, but Fedorov-Davydov makes no reference to its effect on the Volga cites when discussing the archaeology of Selitryonnoye and Tsarevo, despite remarking on the evident population decrease by It would be difficult to quantify this archaeologically unless an excavator found a mass burial, and a physical anthropologist was able to establish the cause of death from the skeletal evidence.

Here follows an alphabetical list of sites by province yielding fourteenth century deposits, many of which were not visited in person: for these the information has been culled from published material. Much of the source material has been gathered from interviews with the Iranian directors or their colleagues during visits to Iran in and Even so, it is likely that regional variations will have to be accounted for, and many comparative sites will be needed.

This methodology is dependent on the capability of the excavator, and is not appropriate for some of the more conservative practitioners interviewed, who failed to appreciate the importance and utility of stratigraphic excavation, in maximising the information that would have been available. But, it is easy to criticise, and one never knows the constraints, budgets, and political difficulties imposed upon the excavators at any particular time.

For a valid evaluation it is necessary to apply the same critical approach for all archaeological activity. Two separate excavations are known to have been carried out, but neither has been published to date in any detail. Catalogue numbers 1. The base fragment Catalogue number 1. It is not known where the pottery from this trial trench is stored; Tabriz is the most likely location.

Enquiries were made in both the Tabriz Museum and the ICHTO offices, with a negative response, as those who might have been able to locate them were out of town on field trips. This area had been selected for a new cultural complex. Early twentieth century shops were removed, and the foundations of four levels of earlier structures excavated to a depth of between four and five metres. He has since promised me digital copies, which have never materialised. It is to be hoped that a fuller publication will be produced.

Even so, it was impossible to present a full pottery corpus, as Danti was limited by the selectivity of the excavators and noted that Kleiss , It is usually covered in dense grass, whose roots retain the archaeological fragments, and prevent the elements from eroding too much of the surface material.

A total of five buildings were exposed and a small section of the defensive wall. The best finds came from pits dug into Period I floors. The excavators recognized a single building period, with renovations and additional rebuilds; finds sealed by these rebuilds form their dating evidence, but unfortunately no coins were found. See Catalogue section 1. The domestic ovens were identical. We know that other ceramic wares, for McNicoll, His initial premise is that it is solely Mongol and it is only the presence of the sgraffito material that makes him waiver.

There is no doubt that there is an element of socioeconomic or social differences indicated by the lack of finewares on some sites, and it is a topic that needs further study. The site was excavated over three seasons during , and , and the observatory building is now covered with a light dome.

I was unable to locate any of the finds, other than some lustre tiles on display in the local museum Fig. As part of it lies under some modern buildings, work had had to halt. Tabriz Until the only official excavations since that had been carried out were in the area adjacent to the fifteenth century Blue Mosque. This is a rescue excavation triggered by discoveries made when commercial contractors started to excavate the foundations for a shopping complex.

He and his colleagues were also in the process of producing an archaeological map of the area. The Islamic sherds are all associated with small, simple graves, and not with any building. There was a scattering of underglaze-painted fourteenth century wares, but many more unglazed domestic wares, as to be expected. They had not established a detailed diagnostic assemblage for this period, there being a greater focus on the pre-Islamic levels.

In the Tabriz Museum there is a didactic display of a typical archaeological Carried out on Grateful thanks to Dr Javad Golmohammadi for bringing this to my attention. This highlights the fine wares, and demonstrates the lack of architectural structures in the subsequent levels see Fig. More recently a French scholar, Sandra Aube, has published a study of the tilework of the fifteenth century Blue Mosque founded In an interview he reported that the building was unfinished, and that it had collapsed before the decoration was completed.

His excavations revealed a square building, and the massive qiblah wall see Fig. He concluded that there were no useful ceramic finds. This is curious considering it was the tile decoration here that so impressed Aytamish that he was inspired to invite the tileworkers to Cairo around Outside it, to the right as one faces the qibla, is a college, and to the left is a hospice.

The court of the mosque is paved Aube , The full report will be extremely important for the understanding of this area. The surface in one of the areas visited was littered with tile fragments, indicating a substantial structure.

These were collected in September The pre-Islamic structures have been well published, but the final report for the Islamic levels has yet to appear.

Morgan proposed that these were brought by pilgrims who continued to visit the fire temple. The complex located to the northeast of the present day city of Takab in West Azarbaijan province is one of the three major Zoroastrian fire temples. I understand that the long-awaited full DAI report is forthcoming. However, there is no evidence of any excavations in fourteenth century levels, other than those mentioned below.

Twelve pottery kilns were reported, which were producing high-quality unglazed wares, deemed to be of exportable quality — apparently this porous ware was renowned for its properties of water cooling.

Whitehouse published a brief report in Iran in of a visit he made in March Among the Islamic glazed wares by far the most common variety is a bowl with underglaze ornament of the type found in Bahrain.

When preserved, however, it is bluish green or green. The decoration is black and consists mainly of radial panels filled with cross-hatching, chevrons or groups of dots. The Far Eastern ceramics are no less interesting. Most of the Far Eastern material seems to date from the period of maximum prosperity between c. In accordance with ICHTO policy the excavated buildings have been restored and consolidated in order to make it more comprehensible to visitors, see Figure 3.

Although the island had been conquered by the ruler of Whitehouse , According to Northedge he was last heard of in Italy in the s but he has had no contact since then. This was an unexpected surprise, and contrary to all the historical accounts. It is impossible to know from this evidence whether these were from a single instance of a cargo being stranded or an indicator that the islanders continued to trade.

The Western Area was deemed to have thirteenth and fourteenth century material, and the expected ceramic finds are there, together with valuable numismatic evidence. His argument is based on the building plan, which is very fragmentary. Instinctively I think his dating conclusions are correct, but those on the nature of the building are too speculative. Seth Priestman has now painstakingly and efficiently collated all the material housed in the BM, so access to it has greatly improved, and he will be able to display its enormous diversity in a future publication.

The site is described by Willey in his book on Assassin castles. Tammishe There is potentially relevant material here, but one short season in was insufficient to gain a clear picture of the site.

Ceramic production restarted using a combination of pre-Mongol styles and Mongol tastes. The lustre and underglaze painted wares of this period were made with thin bodies, and their decoration became simpler. Other types of pottery, such as Carved, Sgraffiato, Unglazed and Monochrome wares, continued to use more-or-less the old styles.

Despite the invasion of Timur in A. These were all updraught kilns, four circular and one rectangular in plan, with the usual kiln furniture including tripod trivets and pegs.

Figure 3. Unfortunately they only found evidence of early Islamic occupation dating to the eighth and ninth centuries. Friday Mosque The Italians worked on the conservation of the Friday Mosque in the s, under the directorship of the late Eugenio Galdieri. In the course of their work they undertook various excavations and the finds are currently being studied and will be published shortly.

Kashan Kashan is the eponymous site for all fine siliceous-paste wares, but as it has been continually occupied there has been little chance to explore its archaeological remains. Bahrami recorded some chance finds there during building works, which inspired further investigations by property owners.

He does include one polychrome coloured-ground type 1. She dates this to the 13th century, despite the fact it was found with other th 14 century material. A second season was carried out in over a three-month period.

Excavations which have so far been limited to this building reveal it as a large fortified structure on two floors defended by a double wall 2m. This building was destroyed by fire probably towards the end of the thirteenth century, but was replaced shortly afterwards by a single story structure built over the debris and re-using the largely intact exterior wall.

Less than a hundred years later the second building too was destroyed. Both destructions seem to have been so sudden that all types of household objects and decorations were abandoned on the floors fig. The wealth of these finds indicates that the building was the residence of some very important provincial figure. Of even greater interest, they provide large and varied groups of stratigraphically associated material of considerable value in permitting the archaeological and chronological study of the Ilkhanid period so little known from previous excavation.

He does not report any coin finds to support his dating of this well-stratified excavation. There is a useful corpus of fine wares for comparative purposes, but the overall conclusions cannot be supported scientifically. This is unfortunate, because instinctively I agree with them, but need more proof for my argumentation. There was one distinctive underglaze-painted T-rim bowl found in room 3, designated a kitchen see Fig.

There was talk of establishing a website to monitor their work, but I have yet to find it. On my first visit to Mashhad Mr Labbaf was out of the country, but he had instructed all his colleagues to assist me. Even on this visit it was only possible to have a twenty-minute meeting. The gate of the citadel opened into the town and riding through, one found oneself in the midst of a mass of ruined buildings that must have been fine and lofty in their day.

The citadel was full of ruined walls and broken-in domes and vaults, much being wantonly destroyed by people digging for burnt bricks.

The town was built almost entirely of unburnt brick with the exception of a fine Musjid in the centre, sixty yards in length, which still stood almost entire. It was curious to find such a large fine place, so new- looking and so regularly built all in rectangular lines, and yet so utterly deserted.

Mr Labbaf has surveyed the site, and put down small soundings, and Adle has visited it briefly, but neither has published anything to date. The only information that I managed to gather from Labbaf was that there is only simple pottery around the mosque, no residential area, and the occupation was short Yate , The kohandiz or citadel has a nineteenth century foundation. The mosque, which is said to have been constructed in AH see Fig.

Our meeting was too brief and hurried to gain a clear picture. The site certainly deserves greater attention. There was no time to take measurements and draw up a rough plan. To date it has not been included on the list. Their principal aim was to record the pre-Islamic sites, but they included Islamic ones as well.

I am grateful to Alastair Northedge for bringing this to my attention. It is only an inventory of sites, with a few illustrations of typical wares. While it does not present any conclusive archaeological evidence, it does confirm the presence of typical fourteenth century siliceous-paste wares: both the geometric type 1.

Their next step is to apply for an excavation permit. It was not altogether clear whether this had been intentional, or coincidence. Mr Mokarrami favoured the former. Many of the tepehs I noted have been used as burial sites doubtless to avoid using any valuable agricultural land. Adle concludes that all evidence indicates a Mongol period site.

Hydraulic Structures A brief article by William Clevenger on dams in Khurasan outlines the existence of several massive structures, some of which had fourteenth century foundations. The sherd collection in Figure 3. This covers some 36 hectares. He used an architectural maquette of the whole area, to explain their findings.

They plan to establish an outdoor museum with didactic displays of the archaeological material to help visitors understand the importance of their work. One of my helpers was an elderly bricklayer employed by ICHTO, and had worked on restoring the tomb before They had excavated into the foundations prior to restoration, and he reported that they had found many more similar tiles, assorted pottery and coins.

Someone had come from Tehran to inspect their finds and taken the entire collection back with him. A Polish team was working on the Turkmenistan side of the site, where most of the administrative buildings are to be found. To date I have only found tantalising references to this work, with fourteenth century ceramics dating excavations at the northeast corner of the citadel. This appears to be a key site, judging by the sherds seen in both Mashhad and Bojnurd.

I have been in contact with Dr Kaim by email, and unfortunately they only had two seasons at the site. She told me that her ceramics expert would be in touch, but she never has been.

There were several examples amongst the sherds viewed. I think that eventually the ICHTO work will be able to present a corpus of diagnostic wares for each area, and it may well be that several types that were presumed to be ubiquitous because we have numerous complete examples in Western museums are in fact restricted to specific regions, with only a few being in circulation in other areas. Clevenger reported two dams in the Juvayn area, which he was unable to visit. They are concentrating on articulating and restoring the exterior walls before excavating the centre see Figs 3.

There is tantalising kiln evidence in the area surrounding the kohandiz, but when I visited in no kilns had been excavated. The Spooner , The corpus includes glazed earthenware copies of the siliceous- paste prototypes.

A typical unglazed ware that should be noted is a series of large buff- ware storage and water pots, with incised floral decoration inlaid with turquoise siliceous-paste fragments and turquoise glaze drips. A complete example was on display in a special exhibition in Mashhad Catalogue number 1. The large hectare tepeh was surveyed and published by Kleiss in Kleiss published photographs of the stamped and moulded unglazed earthenwares and line drawings and profiles of the finewares.

Type 1. An Payvand See Figure 3. For example, on the first visit to the site in I was informed that a kiln workshop complex had been excavated to the east of Bassaglia The following year I was assured by an architect in Khurasan, who had worked on the site for several seasons, that this was incorrect, and that the so-called kiln area was in fact a metal workshop. Only animal bones were found in these earlier vaulted structures, and he thinks that the human remains must have been removed before construction began.

The workshop area is outside the royal city and has yet to be excavated see aerial photograph, Fig. The finds to date do not give any accurate information, as they have not been systematically excavated and represent the results of a mass clearance. We will have to wait for the excavation of the Mongol workshops before an accurate and useful assemblage can be established. However, it may well be that they could only produce clay wares here, and that the luxury siliceous-paste wares had to be imported from specific centres.

Reitlinger and Talbot Rice visited the site in , and the latter reported on this workshop area in a short article in Burlington Magazine. The villagers seemed to have made the acquaintance of the Teheran dealers; for they had the cunning to hide their choice pieces till the last. Both vessels have a compact calcareous clay body that is definitely not a siliceous-paste ware, and is discussed in the Catalogue.

There were implements for banquets, apparatus for battle; there they arranged all things for entertainments. Aleppo had a well established metal-working industry, but several wasters in the BM collection indicate that there was also a ceramics industry by the thirteenth century too. He emphasized that they had very few so-called Sultanabad wares by this he mean coloured-ground, types 1. Despite fifteen seasons at the site up to , their excavations of the Islamic levels have not extended beyond the royal citadel.

There are apparently nineteen buildings named in the historical documents, and as mentioned above, the workshop areas are known and lie to be to the south-west of the citadel, and will be excavated at a later date. Observations on the glazed pottery excavated to date reveal a markedly diagnostic underglaze blue on white ware.

The body paste is a red calcareous clay, with white limestone and quartz inclusions, masked with by a thick white slip type 1. It is hard to fathom how such a conclusion can be drawn from this find, and to see the mint within this sacred structure.

Certainly it could have been within the walled area which encompassed both the mausoleum and the palace, and hidden inside the tomb complex for safety at a time of unrest. None of these coins was illustrated. They were in the middle of their sixth season. A gazetteer of all known Islamic sites in Iraq has been compiled by Marie-Odile Rousset, which makes a useful checklist for this study.

This gives further support to my argument that these temporary encampments leave almost no traces. Its tile decoration was datable to the fifteenth century. The only siliceous-paste examples that she cited were blue and white fifteenth century wares. It seems to be a very promising site for extensive excavations. He saw a settlement gap between these and the eleventh century AD. This is totally hypothetical, but would certainly account for the finer dining.

Adams also carried out a survey of the area identifying diagnostic sherd material in the manner of his Land Behind Baghdad study. Nippur The Nippur concession has been under the direction of American teams since Gibson also recorded the crude hand-formed pottery contemporary with these finewares, which is important for establishing future typologies.

There were three seasons in , and The site was abandoned in the mid-fourteenth century, probably due to flooding. Five mounds were excavated with seven layers of occupation. Five examples of underglaze-painted wares are given, but the descriptions are confusing. Lutfi and Jannabi , Height 25cm; diameter at mouth 9. Figure 18, drawing number 58, is a typical type 1. There is a lustred T- rim number 68 and true celadons numbers 98 and The Russian excavators of this Armenian fortified city published examples of types 1.

The two kilns at Ahlat used the natural contours of the hillside and were built into a small cliff face. The composition of the body pastes is not clear. I established that his sherd collection is still in the British Institute in Ankara but have not had any opportunity to study them as yet. Iran is an enormous country, and I feel that I am barely scratching the surface.

At this stage it would probably be more profitable to concentrate on one specific area, and attempt to gain a clearer picture of the archaeological material available. To judge from the pockets of information available from Iran, this is gradually being carried out. Inspected under a 10X Museum. Mosque, Tabriz. Fig 3. This chapter serves to enumerate and discuss the archaeological sources for these products. This represents the latest ambitious steps in our sustainability journey and pursuit of a circular economy for plastics.

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